GM8

Pontus, Cappadocia, and Pergamun

Pontus A Multilingual Region

The northern coast of Asia Minor, known as Pontus, was dominated by a feudal Persian nobility. Despite its fertility, the region was home to people speaking twenty-two different languages in its villages. King Mithradates I (301-266), a partially Hellenized Persian claiming Achaemenid descent, founded the state, gaining independence from both Antigonus I and the Seleucids. Welcoming the arrival of the Gauls like the Bithynians Turmoil and Decline in the Seleucid Kingdom, he established the capital in Amasia, later moved to Sinope in the second century.

Rise of Pontic Power

Mithradates’ successors strengthened the country, employing many Greeks and earning recognition as a Hellenistic power. Pharnaces I (185-169), one of them, ambitiously proposed a Pontic empire encircling the Black Sea. Mithradates V (150-120), the son of

Unhappy Marriages and Poisoned Kings

The marriage between Antiochus II and Berenice turned out to be far from happy. After a brief period, Antiochus abandoned Berenice and their infant son to reunite with Laodice. Unfortunately, Laodice poisoned him, declared her own son Seleucus II (246-225) as king, and ordered the execution of Berenice and her son. This treacherous act triggered the Third Syrian or Laodicean War (246-241) when the Egyptian king, Ptolemy III Challenges and Decline in the Seleucid Kingdom, sought vengeance. Despite Ptolemy’s initial successes, particularly in recapturing Ionia, coastal Syria, and part of Thrace, Seleucus struggled in a civil war with his brother Antiochus Hierax, preventing him from reclaiming lost territories like Pergamun, Parthia, and Bactria.

Successors and Continued Losses

Following Seleucus III’s reign (225-223), Antiochus III, an eighteen-year

During its zenith around 300 B.C., the Seleucid Kingdom, led by Seleucus Nicator, spanned approximately 1.5 million square miles. Despite being considered Alexander’s true heir due to significant territorial acquisitions, Seleucus faced numerous challenges that impeded the kingdom’s stability and unity.

Ethnic Disunity and Territorial Losses

The primary obstacle was ethnic disunity, resulting in Greek factionalism, varied governance across provinces, and anti-Greek sentiments among the native populations. Foreign adversaries surrounded the kingdom, contributing to its sluggish responsiveness Ancient States of Asia Minor. Seleucus had to relinquish the Indus Valley, and during his reign, Armenia, northern Anatolia, and northwestern Iran gained independence.

Challenges Under Antiochus I

Under the rule of the second Seleucid king, Antiochus I (281-261), the situation worsened. Gauls invaded from th